Encrypted Content-Encoding for HTTPMozillamartin.thomson@gmail.com
General
Internet-DraftThis memo introduces a content-coding for HTTP that allows message payloads to
be encrypted.It is sometimes desirable to encrypt the contents of a HTTP message (request or
response) so that when the payload is stored (e.g., with a HTTP PUT), only
someone with the appropriate key can read it.For example, it might be necessary to store a file on a server without exposing
its contents to that server. Furthermore, that same file could be replicated to
other servers (to make it more resistant to server or network failure),
downloaded by clients (to make it available offline), etc. without exposing its
contents.These uses are not met by the use of TLS , since it only encrypts the
channel between the client and server.This document specifies a content-coding (Section 3.1.2 of ) for HTTP
to serve these and other use cases.This content-coding is not a direct adaptation of message-based encryption
formats - such as those that are described by , , ,
and - which are not suited to stream processing, which is necessary for
HTTP. The format described here cleaves more closely to the lower level
constructs described in .To the extent that message-based encryption formats use the same primitives, the
format can be considered as sequence of encrypted messages with a particular
profile. For instance, explains how the format is congruent with a
sequence of JSON Web Encryption values with a fixed header.This mechanism is likely only a small part of a larger design that uses content
encryption. How clients and servers acquire and identify keys will depend on
the use case. Though a complete key management system is not described, this
document defines an Crypto-Key header field that can be used to convey keying
material.The key words “MUST”, “MUST NOT”, “REQUIRED”, “SHALL”, “SHALL NOT”, “SHOULD”,
“SHOULD NOT”, “RECOMMENDED”, “MAY”, and “OPTIONAL” in this document are to be
interpreted as described in .The “aesgcm128” HTTP content-coding indicates that a payload has been encrypted
using Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) in Galois/Counter Mode (GCM) as
identified as AEAD_AES_128_GCM in , Section 5.1. The AEAD_AES_128_GCM
algorithm uses a 128 bit content encryption key.When this content-coding is in use, the Encryption header field ()
describes how encryption has been applied. The Crypto-Key header field
() can be included to describe how the content encryption key is
derived or retrieved.The “aesgcm128” content-coding uses a single fixed set of encryption
primitives. Cipher suite agility is achieved by defining a new content-coding
scheme. This ensures that only the HTTP Accept-Encoding header field is
necessary to negotiate the use of encryption.The “aesgcm128” content-coding uses a fixed record size. The resulting
encoding is a series of fixed-size records, with a final record that is one or
more octets shorter than a fixed sized record.The record size determines the length of each portion of plaintext that is
enciphered, with the exception of the final record, which is necessarily
smaller. The record size defaults to 4096 octets, but can be changed using the
“rs” parameter on the Encryption header field.AEAD_AES_128_GCM expands ciphertext to be 16 octets longer than its input
plaintext. Therefore, the length of each enciphered record other than the last
is equal to the value of the “rs” parameter plus 16 octets. A receiver MUST
fail to decrypt if the final record ciphertext is 16 octets or less in size.
Valid records always contain at least one byte of padding and a 16 octet
authentication tag.Each record contains between 1 and 256 octets of padding, inserted into a record
before the enciphered content. Padding consists of a length byte, followed that
number of zero-valued octets. A receiver MUST fail to decrypt if any padding
octet other than the first is non-zero, or a record has more padding than the
record size can accommodate.The nonce for each record is a 96-bit value constructed from the record sequence
number and the input keying material. Nonce derivation is covered in .The additional data passed to each invocation of AEAD_AES_128_GCM is a
zero-length octet sequence.A sequence of full-sized records can be truncated to produce a shorter sequence
of records with valid authentication tags. To prevent an attacker from
truncating a stream, an encoder MUST append a record that contains only padding
and is smaller than the full record size if the final record ends on a record
boundary. A receiver MUST treat the stream as failed due to truncation if the
final record is the full record size.A consequence of this record structure is that range requests and
random access to encrypted payload bodies are possible at the granularity of the
record size. However, without data from adjacent ranges, partial records cannot
be used. Thus, it is best if records start and end on multiples of the record
size, plus the 16 octet authentication tag size.The Encryption HTTP header field describes the encrypted content encoding(s)
that have been applied to a payload body, and therefore how those content
encoding(s) can be removed.The Encryption header field uses the extended ABNF syntax defined in
Section 1.2 of and the parameter rule from If the payload is encrypted more than once (as reflected by having multiple
content-codings that imply encryption), each application of the content encoding
is reflected in the Encryption header field, in the order in which they were
applied.Encryption header field values with multiple instances of the same parameter
name are invalid.The Encryption header MAY be omitted if the sender does not intend for the
immediate recipient to be able to decrypt the payload body. Alternatively,
the Encryption header field MAY be omitted if the sender intends for the
recipient to acquire the header field by other means.Servers processing PUT requests MUST persist the value of the Encryption header
field, unless they remove the content-coding by decrypting the payload.The following parameters are used in determining the content encryption key that
is used for encryption:
The “keyid” parameter contains a string that identifies the keying material
that is used. The “keyid” parameter SHOULD be included, unless key
identification is guaranteed by other means. The “keyid” parameter MUST be used
if keying material included in an Crypto-Key header field is needed to derive
the content encryption key.
The “salt” parameter contains a base64 URL-encoded octets that is used as salt
in deriving a unique content encryption key (see ). The “salt”
parameter MUST be present, and MUST be exactly 16 octets long when decoded. The
“salt” parameter MUST NOT be reused for two different payload bodies that have
the same input keying material; generating a random salt for every application
of the content encoding ensures that content encryption key reuse is highly
unlikely.
The “rs” parameter contains a positive decimal integer that describes the
record size in octets. This value MUST be greater than 1. If the “rs”
parameter is absent, the record size defaults to 4096 octets.In order to allow the reuse of keying material for multiple different HTTP
messages, a content encryption key is derived for each message. The content
encryption key is derived from the decoded value of the “salt” parameter using
the HMAC-based key derivation function (HKDF) described in using the
SHA-256 hash algorithm .The decoded value of the “salt” parameter is the salt input to HKDF function.
The keying material identified by the “keyid” parameter is the input keying
material (IKM) to HKDF. Input keying material can either be prearranged, or can
be described using the Crypto-Key header field (). The first step
of HKDF is therefore:The info parameter to HKDF is set to the ASCII-encoded string “Content-Encoding:
aesgcm128”, a single zero octet and an optional context string:Unless otherwise specified, the context is a zero length octet sequence.
Specifications that use this content encoding MAY specify the use of an expanded
context to cover additional inputs in the key derivation.AEAD_AES_128_GCM requires a 16 octet (128 bit) content encryption key, so the
length (L) parameter to HKDF is 16. The second step of HKDF can
therefore be simplified to the first 16 octets of a single HMAC:The nonce input to AEAD_AES_128_GCM is constructed for each record. The nonce
for each record is a 12 octet (96 bit) value is produced from the record
sequence number and a value derived from the input keying material.The input keying material and salt values are input to HKDF with different info
and length parameters.The length (L) parameter is 12 octets. The info parameter for the nonce is the
ASCII-encoded string “Content-Encoding: nonce”, a single zero octet and an
context:The context for nonce derivation SHOULD be the same as is used for content
encryption key derivation.The result is combined with the record sequence number - using exclusive or - to
produce the nonce. The record sequence number (SEQ) is a 96-bit unsigned
integer in network byte order that starts at zero.Thus, the final nonce for each record is a 12 octet value:An Crypto-Key header field can be used to describe the input keying material
used in the Encryption header field.The Crypto-Key header field uses the extended ABNF syntax defined in Section 1.2
of and the parameter rule from .
The “keyid” parameter corresponds to the “keyid” parameter in the Encryption
header field.
The “aesgcm128” parameter contains the URL-safe base64 octets of the
input keying material.
The “dh” parameter contains an ephemeral Diffie-Hellman share. This form of
the header field can be used to encrypt content for a specific recipient.Crypto-Key header field values with multiple instances of the same parameter
name are invalid.The input keying material used by the key derivation (see ) can be
determined based on the information in the Crypto-Key header field. The method
for key derivation depends on the parameters that are present in the header
field.The value or values provided in the Crypto-Key header field is valid only
for the current HTTP message unless additional information indicates a greater
scope.Note that different methods for determining input keying material will produce
different amounts of data. The HKDF process ensures that the final content
encryption key is the necessary size.Alternative methods for determining input keying material MAY be defined by
specifications that use this content-encoding.The “aesgcm128” parameter is decoded and used as the input keying material for
the “aesgcm128” content encoding. The “aesgcm128” parameter MUST decode to at
least 16 octets in order to be used as input keying material for “aesgcm128”
content encoding.Other key determination parameters can be ignored if the “aesgcm128” parameter
is present.The “dh” parameter is included to describe a Diffie-Hellman share, either modp
(or finite field) Diffie-Hellman or elliptic curve Diffie-Hellman (ECDH)
.This share is combined with other information at the recipient to determine the
HKDF input keying material. In order for the exchange to be successful, the
following information MUST be established out of band:Which Diffie-Hellman form is used.The modp group or elliptic curve that will be used.A label that uniquely identifies the group. This label will be expressed as a
sequence of octets and MUST NOT include a zero-valued octet.The format of the ephemeral public share that is included in the “dh”
parameter. This encoding MUST result in a single, canonical sequence of
octets. For instance, using ECDH both parties need to agree whether this is
an uncompressed or compressed point.In addition to identifying which content-encoding this input keying material is
used for, the “keyid” parameter is used to identify this additional information
at the receiver.The intended recipient recovers their private key and are then able to generate
a shared secret using the designated Diffie-Hellman process.The context for content encryption key and nonce derivation (see )
is set to include the means by which the keys were derived. The context is
formed from the concatenation of group label, a single zero octet, the length of
the public key of the recipient, the public key of the recipient, the length of
the public key of the sender, and the public key of the sender. The public keys
are encoded into octets as defined for the group when determining the context
string.The two length fields are encoded as a two octet unsigned integer in network
byte order.Specifications that rely on an Diffie-Hellman exchange for determining input
keying material MUST either specify the parameters for Diffie-Hellman (group
parameters, or curves and point format) that are used, or describe how those
parameters are negotiated between sender and receiver.Key derivation MAY be extended to include an additional authentication secret.
Such a secret is shared between the sender and receiver of a message using other
means.A pre-shared authentication secret is not explicitly signaled in either the
Encryption or Crypto-Key header fields. Use of this additional step depends on
prior agreement.When a shared authentication secret is used, the keying material produced by the
key agreement method (e.g., Diffie-Hellman, explicit key, or otherwise) is
combined with the authentication secret using HKDF. The output of HKDF is the
input keying material used to derive the content encryption key and nonce
.The authentication secret is used as the “salt” parameter to HKDF, the raw
keying material (e.g., Diffie-Hellman output) is used as the “IKM” parameter,
the ASCII-encoded string “Content-Encoding: auth” with a terminal zero octet is
used as the “info” parameter, and the length of the output is 32 octets (i.e.,
the entire output of the underlying SHA-256 HMAC function):This invocation of HKDF does not take the same context that is provided to the
final key derivation stages. Alternatively, this phase can be viewed as always
having a zero-length context.Note that in the absence of an authentication secret, the input keying material
is simply the raw keying material:Here, a successful HTTP GET response has been encrypted using input keying
material that is identified by a URI.Note that the media type has been changed to “application/octet-stream” to avoid
exposing information about the content.Here, a PUT request has been encrypted twice with different input keying
material; decrypting twice is necessary to read the content. The outer layer of
encryption uses a 1200 octet record size.This example shows the string “I am the walrus” encrypted using an directly
provided value for the input keying material. The content body contains a
single record only and is shown here encoded in URL-safe base64 for presentation
reasons only.This example shows the same string, “I am the walrus”, encrypted using ECDH over
the P-256 curve , which is identified with the label “P-256” encoded in
ASCII. The content body is shown here encoded in URL-safe base64 for
presentation reasons only.The receiver (in this case, the HTTP client) uses a key pair that is identified
by the string “dhkey” and the sender (the server) uses a key pair for which the
public share is included in the “dh” parameter above. The keys shown below use
uncompressed points encoded using URL-safe base64. Line wrapping is
added for presentation purposes only.This mechanism assumes the presence of a key management framework that is used
to manage the distribution of keys between valid senders and receivers.
Defining key management is part of composing this mechanism into a larger
application, protocol, or framework.Implementation of cryptography - and key management in particular - can be
difficult. For instance, implementations need to account for the potential for
exposing keying material on side channels, such as might be exposed by the time
it takes to perform a given operation. The requirements for a good
implementation of cryptographic algorithms can change over time.Encrypting different plaintext with the same content encryption key and nonce in
AES-GCM is not safe . The scheme defined here uses a fixed progression
of nonce values. Thus, a new content encryption key is needed for every
application of the content encoding. Since input keying material can be reused,
a unique “salt” parameter is needed to ensure a content encryption key is not
reused.If a content encryption key is reused - that is, if input keying material and
salt are reused - this could expose the plaintext and the authentication key,
nullifying the protection offered by encryption. Thus, if the same input keying
material is reused, then the salt parameter MUST be unique each time. This
ensures that the content encryption key is not reused. An implementation SHOULD
generate a random salt parameter for every message; a counter could achieve the
same result.This mechanism only provides content origin authentication. The authentication
tag only ensures that an entity with access to the content encryption key
produced the encrypted data.Any entity with the content encryption key can therefore produce content that
will be accepted as valid. This includes all recipients of the same HTTP
message.Furthermore, any entity that is able to modify both the Encryption header field
and the HTTP message body can replace the contents. Without the content
encryption key or the input keying material, modifications to or replacement of
parts of a payload body are not possible.Because only the payload body is encrypted, information exposed in header fields
is visible to anyone who can read the HTTP message. This could expose
side-channel information.For example, the Content-Type header field can leak information about the
payload body.There are a number of strategies available to mitigate this threat, depending
upon the application’s threat model and the users’ tolerance for leaked
information:Determine that it is not an issue. For example, if it is expected that all
content stored will be “application/json”, or another very common media type,
exposing the Content-Type header field could be an acceptable risk.If it is considered sensitive information and it is possible to determine it
through other means (e.g., out of band, using hints in other representations,
etc.), omit the relevant headers, and/or normalize them. In the case of
Content-Type, this could be accomplished by always sending Content-Type:
application/octet-stream (the most generic media type), or no Content-Type at
all.If it is considered sensitive information and it is not possible to convey it
elsewhere, encapsulate the HTTP message using the application/http media type
(Section 8.3.2 of ), encrypting that as the payload of the “outer”
message.This mechanism only offers encryption of content; it does not perform
authentication or authorization, which still needs to be performed (e.g., by
HTTP authentication ).This is especially relevant when a HTTP PUT request is accepted by a server; if
the request is unauthenticated, it becomes possible for a third party to deny
service and/or poison the store.Applications using this mechanism need to be aware that the size of encrypted
messages, as well as their timing, HTTP methods, URIs and so on, may leak
sensitive information.This risk can be mitigated through the use of the padding that this mechanism
provides. Alternatively, splitting up content into segments and storing the
separately might reduce exposure. HTTP/2 combined with TLS
might be used to hide the size of individual messages.This memo registers the “encrypted” HTTP content-coding in the HTTP Content
Codings Registry, as detailed in .Name: aesgcm128Description: AES-GCM encryption with a 128-bit content encryption keyReference: this specificationThis memo registers the “Encryption” HTTP header field in the Permanent Message
Header Registry, as detailed in .Field name: EncryptionProtocol: HTTPStatus: StandardReference: this specificationNotes:This memo registers the “Crypto-Key” HTTP header field in the Permanent
Message Header Registry, as detailed in .Field name: Crypto-KeyProtocol: HTTPStatus: StandardReference: this specificationNotes:This memo establishes a registry for parameters used by the “Encryption” header
field under the “Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) Parameters” grouping. The
“Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) Encryption Parameters” registry operates
under an “Specification Required” policy .Entries in this registry are expected to include the following information:Parameter Name: The name of the parameter.Purpose: A brief description of the purpose of the parameter.Reference: A reference to a specification that defines the semantics of the parameter.The initial contents of this registry are:Parameter Name: keyidPurpose: Identify the key that is in use.Reference: this documentParameter Name: saltPurpose: Provide a source of entropy for derivation of a content encryption key. This value is mandatory.Reference: this documentParameter Name: rsPurpose: The size of the encrypted records.Reference: this documentThis memo establishes a registry for parameters used by the “Crypto-Key” header
field under the “Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) Parameters” grouping. The
“Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) Encryption Parameters” operates under an
“Specification Required” policy .Entries in this registry are expected to include the following information:Parameter Name: The name of the parameter.Purpose: A brief description of the purpose of the parameter.Reference: A reference to a specification that defines the semantics of the parameter.The initial contents of this registry are:Parameter Name: keyidPurpose: Identify the key that is in use.Reference: this documentParameter Name: aesgcm128Purpose: Provide an explicit input keying material value for the aesgcm128 content encoding.Reference: this documentParameter Name: dhPurpose: Carry a modp or elliptic curve Diffie-Hellman share used to derive input keying material.Reference: this documentKey words for use in RFCs to Indicate Requirement LevelsIn many standards track documents several words are used to signify the requirements in the specification. These words are often capitalized. This document defines these words as they should be interpreted in IETF documents. This document specifies an Internet Best Current Practices for the Internet Community, and requests discussion and suggestions for improvements.Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) Cipher Suites for Transport Layer Security (TLS)This document describes new key exchange algorithms based on Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) for the Transport Layer Security (TLS) protocol. In particular, it specifies the use of Elliptic Curve Diffie-Hellman (ECDH) key agreement in a TLS handshake and the use of Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm (ECDSA) as a new authentication mechanism. This memo provides information for the Internet community.The Base16, Base32, and Base64 Data EncodingsThis document describes the commonly used base 64, base 32, and base 16 encoding schemes. It also discusses the use of line-feeds in encoded data, use of padding in encoded data, use of non-alphabet characters in encoded data, use of different encoding alphabets, and canonical encodings. [STANDARDS-TRACK]Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP/1.1): Message Syntax and RoutingThe Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a stateless application-level protocol for distributed, collaborative, hypertext information systems. This document provides an overview of HTTP architecture and its associated terminology, defines the "http" and "https" Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) schemes, defines the HTTP/1.1 message syntax and parsing requirements, and describes related security concerns for implementations.Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP/1.1): Semantics and ContentThe Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a stateless \%application- level protocol for distributed, collaborative, hypertext information systems. This document defines the semantics of HTTP/1.1 messages, as expressed by request methods, request header fields, response status codes, and response header fields, along with the payload of messages (metadata and body content) and mechanisms for content negotiation.An Interface and Algorithms for Authenticated EncryptionThis document defines algorithms for Authenticated Encryption with Associated Data (AEAD), and defines a uniform interface and a registry for such algorithms. The interface and registry can be used as an application-independent set of cryptoalgorithm suites. This approach provides advantages in efficiency and security, and promotes the reuse of crypto implementations. [STANDARDS-TRACK]HMAC-based Extract-and-Expand Key Derivation Function (HKDF)This document specifies a simple Hashed Message Authentication Code (HMAC)-based key derivation function (HKDF), which can be used as a building block in various protocols and applications. The key derivation function (KDF) is intended to support a wide range of applications and requirements, and is conservative in its use of cryptographic hash functions. This document is not an Internet Standards Track specification; it is published for informational purposes.NIST FIPS 180-4, Secure Hash StandardNew Directions in CryptographyOpenPGP Message FormatThis document is maintained in order to publish all necessary information needed to develop interoperable applications based on the OpenPGP format. It is not a step-by-step cookbook for writing an application. It describes only the format and methods needed to read, check, generate, and write conforming packets crossing any network. It does not deal with storage and implementation questions. It does, however, discuss implementation issues necessary to avoid security flaws.OpenPGP software uses a combination of strong public-key and symmetric cryptography to provide security services for electronic communications and data storage. These services include confidentiality, key management, authentication, and digital signatures. This document specifies the message formats used in OpenPGP. [STANDARDS-TRACK]Guidelines for Writing an IANA Considerations Section in RFCsMany protocols make use of identifiers consisting of constants and other well-known values. Even after a protocol has been defined and deployment has begun, new values may need to be assigned (e.g., for a new option type in DHCP, or a new encryption or authentication transform for IPsec). To ensure that such quantities have consistent values and interpretations across all implementations, their assignment must be administered by a central authority. For IETF protocols, that role is provided by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA).In order for IANA to manage a given namespace prudently, it needs guidelines describing the conditions under which new values can be assigned or when modifications to existing values can be made. If IANA is expected to play a role in the management of a namespace, IANA must be given clear and concise instructions describing that role. This document discusses issues that should be considered in formulating a policy for assigning values to a namespace and provides guidelines for authors on the specific text that must be included in documents that place demands on IANA.This document obsoletes RFC 2434. This document specifies an Internet Best Current Practices for the Internet Community, and requests discussion and suggestions for improvements.The Transport Layer Security (TLS) Protocol Version 1.2This document specifies Version 1.2 of the Transport Layer Security (TLS) protocol. The TLS protocol provides communications security over the Internet. The protocol allows client/server applications to communicate in a way that is designed to prevent eavesdropping, tampering, or message forgery. [STANDARDS-TRACK]Cryptographic Message Syntax (CMS)This document describes the Cryptographic Message Syntax (CMS). This syntax is used to digitally sign, digest, authenticate, or encrypt arbitrary message content. [STANDARDS-TRACK]Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP/1.1): Range RequestsThe Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a stateless application- level protocol for distributed, collaborative, hypertext information systems. This document defines range requests and the rules for constructing and combining responses to those requests.Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP/1.1): AuthenticationThe Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a stateless application- level protocol for distributed, collaborative, hypermedia information systems. This document defines the HTTP Authentication framework.JSON Web Encryption (JWE)JSON Web Encryption (JWE) represents encrypted content using JSON-based data structures. Cryptographic algorithms and identifiers for use with this specification are described in the separate JSON Web Algorithms (JWA) specification and IANA registries defined by that specification. Related digital signature and Message Authentication Code (MAC) capabilities are described in the separate JSON Web Signature (JWS) specification.Hypertext Transfer Protocol Version 2 (HTTP/2)This specification describes an optimized expression of the semantics of the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), referred to as HTTP version 2 (HTTP/2). HTTP/2 enables a more efficient use of network resources and a reduced perception of latency by introducing header field compression and allowing multiple concurrent exchanges on the same connection. It also introduces unsolicited push of representations from servers to clients.This specification is an alternative to, but does not obsolete, the HTTP/1.1 message syntax. HTTP's existing semantics remain unchanged.Digital Signature Standard (DSS)National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)Public Key Cryptography For The Financial Services Industry: The Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm (ECDSA)ANSIXML Encryption Syntax and ProcessingThe “aesgcm128” content encoding can be considered as a sequence of JSON Web
Encryption (JWE) objects , each corresponding to a single fixed size
record. The following transformations are applied to a JWE object that might be
expressed using the JWE Compact Serialization:The JWE Protected Header is fixed to a value { “alg”: “dir”, “enc”: “A128GCM”
}, describing direct encryption using AES-GCM with a 128-bit content
encryption key. This header is not transmitted, it is instead implied by the
value of the Content-Encoding header field.The JWE Encrypted Key is empty, as stipulated by the direct encryption algorithm.The JWE Initialization Vector (“iv”) for each record is set to the exclusive
or of the 96-bit record sequence number, starting at zero, and a value derived
from the input keying material (see ). This value is also not
transmitted.The final value is the concatenated JWE Ciphertext and the JWE Authentication
Tag, both expressed without URL-safe Base 64 encoding. The “.” separator is
omitted, since the length of these fields is known.Thus, the example in can be rendered using the JWE Compact
Serialization as:Where the first line represents the fixed JWE Protected Header, JWE Encrypted
Key, and JWE Initialization Vector, all of which are determined algorithmically.
The second line contains the encoded body, split into JWE Ciphertext and JWE
Authentication Tag.Mark Nottingham was an original author of this document.The following people provided valuable input: Richard Barnes, David Benjamin,
Peter Beverloo, Mike Jones, Stephen Farrell, Adam Langley, John Mattsson, Eric
Rescorla, and Jim Schaad.